Athens Office

Although the Archaic Greek site of Pithekoussai was discovered as early as the late 18th century, it was not until the 1950s and 60s that its importance was fully realized. Dated to the early 8th century BCE by the immense quantities of pottery and well-preserved funerary goods found at the site, this large settlement on the Italian island of Ischia near the Bay of Naples is the earliest Greek foundation to be discovered in the West. As the forerunner to the later great colonies of Magna Graecia, Pithekoussai is invaluable to the study of Greek colonization. Its archaeological remains reveal the beginnings of the revolutionary idea of colonization, and the ways in which the Greek presence was first established in the West.
The site’s significance is furthered still by the wide range of cultural material it has yielded. By investigating the available ceramic evidence, fibulae types, burial traditions, imported goods, and various written sources, this study sheds light on the diverse ethnic groups that called Pithekoussai home. As a place where the cultural traditions of Euboeans, Corinthians, Levantines, and Etruscans converged and co-existed, the remains of Pithekoussai play an important role in understanding how cultural identities affected commercial relations in the Archaic Mediterranean, and how the interaction of these identities laid the foundations for the expansive colonization efforts of the Greeks in the following centuries.

Though their nickname as the ‘hippies of the ancient world’ is usually applied lightheartedly to the Minoans of the Bronze Age Aegean, archaeological and iconographic evidence does indeed attest to their reverence for the natural world. One plant seems particularly prevalent within the Aegean, for represented on ceramics, in wall-paintings, and on votive objects are numerous depictions of the crocus flower. While the saffron spice, a product of the flower, was carefully recorded in Linear B texts, testifying to its importance as a valuable economic commodity, its inclusion in highly detailed iconographic representations and the contexts within which they were found attest to a significance extending beyond commercial import.  An integral part of Minoan industry, medicine, religion, and trade, the pervasive importance of saffron and the crocus flower throughout many social spheres made it, not only a valuable commodity throughout the Bronze Age Mediterranean world, but also an integral part of culture and identity for the Minoan people.

Although the Archaic Greek site of Pithekoussai was discovered as early as the late 18th century, it was not until the 1950s and 60s that its importance was fully realized. Dated to the early 8th century BCE by the immense quantities of pottery and well-preserved funerary goods found at the site, this large settlement on the Italian island of Ischia near the Bay of Naples is the earliest Greek foundation to be discovered in the West. As the forerunner to the later great colonies of Magna Graecia, Pithekoussai is invaluable to the study of Greek colonization. Its archaeological remains reveal the beginnings of the revolutionary idea of colonization, and the ways in which the Greek presence was first established in the West.
The site’s significance is furthered still by the wide range of cultural material it has yielded. By investigating the available ceramic evidence, fibulae types, burial traditions, imported goods, and various written sources, this study sheds light on the diverse ethnic groups that called Pithekoussai home. As a place where the cultural traditions of Euboeans, Corinthians, Levantines, and Etruscans converged and co-existed, the remains of Pithekoussai play an important role in understanding how cultural identities affected commercial relations in the Archaic Mediterranean, and how the interaction of these identities laid the foundations for the expansive colonization efforts of the Greeks in the following centuries.

As the two major Aegean civilizations of the Late Bronze Age, the Minoans and Mycenaeans are sometimes erroneously swept together and regarded as one pan-Aegean cultural tradition. This is particularly true of their religions, for the similarities apparent in many of the visual and practical aspects of Minoan and Mycenaean religious traditions would seem to suggest a linear development of continuity.
Yet the archaeological, iconographical, and textual evidence reveals a more complex picture of Aegean religion. Although cultural interactions throughout the Bronze Age facilitated the transmission and assimilation of many religious elements, recognizable Mainland and Cretan religious characteristics can be identified. Indeed, it is clear that the Mycenaeans incorporated many Minoan symbols and iconographic conventions into their own religious traditions, particularly in Late Helladic/Late Minoan IIIB and C following the collapse of the Cretan palaces and at the start of the Mycenaean period. A study, however, which focuses solely on the ‘origins’ of cult symbols or practices falls short; much can change even after one culture has been assimilated into another, and those changes, the collective devolvement process, are as equally important as the original symbol or practice. Furthermore, the transmission of a symbol temporally and geographically does not necessitate the adoption of its associated rituals and beliefs. In order to fully understand its accepted meaning and use within a new culture, its specific contexts, spatial, political, economic, or otherwise, must be investigated.
The Mycenaean adoption of Minoan religious aspects is a particularly interesting case study of this religious syncretism. Close investigation of Mycenaean religion in the Late Bronze Age reveals that many symbols rooted in Minoan religious traditions were in fact devoid of their original meanings, and that the Mycenaeans had little more than a superficial knowledge of Cretan practices and beliefs. In order to examine these contexts further, it is important to explore the transmission of religious symbols, particularly the double-axe and horns of consecration; the ritual practices of libation, bull-leaping, and epiphanies; and the identification and possible continuity of deities, including those seen in Linear B texts and Minoan goddess figures. By isolating these characteristics and investigating the “superficial Minoan veneer”  which was laid over Helladic religious traditions, it is possible to shed light on the power dynamics and cultural interplays of the Late Bronze Age Aegean, a time of social change, monumentalism, and transition.

While iconography of the natural world abounds in the art of the Bronze Age Minoan culture, one plant seems particularly prevalent; represented on ceramics, in wall-paintings, and on votive objects are numerous depictions of the crocus flower. The saffron spice, a product of the flower, was carefully recorded in Linear B texts, testifying to its importance as a valuable economic commodity, but its inclusion in highly detailed iconographic representations and the contexts within which they were found attest to a significance that extended beyond commercial import. Particularly associated with women in the spheres of Minoan industry, medicine, and religion, the pervasive importance of saffron and the crocus flower made it not only a valuable commodity throughout the Bronze Age Mediterranean world, but also an integral part of culture and identity for Minoan women.

Sixteen potsherds previously analyzed by neutron activation analysis (NAA) at Manchester were selected for analysis by NAA at Demokritos. The data for seventeen common elements were compared, and for each element a plot was produced of the data of one laboratory against that of the other. For most elements the agreement is very good and, for the exceptions, it was possible to make suggestions as to the reasons for the discrepancies. Finally, in order to allow direct comparison of pottery data from the two laboratories in provenance studies, a factor was calculated to convert Demokritos data to the Manchester standard for each element.